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Quote: Her problem is the bucket remains liquid but the NIPPLES on the bottom freeze But to answer your question, a normal fountain type waterer sitting directly on a "cookie tin" heater isn't likely to freeze above the base IF your bulb is large enough.

Quote: Not much would really be "wasted" since the sides and top of the heater will warm the air, which will rise up around the nipples The outside of the heater probably won't be too hot to touch unless the bulb is in contact with the sides or top. If it IS, a simple wire "cage" could be put...

Hopefully this explains the concept more clearly

Quote: It only has to keep things above 32 degrees, so not a lot of heat is needed It is NOT a radiant heat source if set up as I described, but would actually be the same convection you're saying is needed, but without having to use a fan

Quote: That would be a problem with the insulation on the cord, or a bad job of wiring the connections. If done PROPERLY it's totally safe

Quote: A simple "cookie tin" heater will accomplish that. It's just a normal light bulb ( NOT a "heat lamp) in a box, which in your case would have to be waterproof One thing that would work well would be a 12 X 12 ceramic tile on top of a fully enclosed container of some sort. Just use your...

Quote: Heat RISES Your heat source needs to be BELOW the nipples, or you'll need to use a normal waterer in Winter .