Good links

[Miss Lydia]

http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/00/41/91/00001/PS04600.pdf


-Kathy

Good info, thanks K.

 

[casportpony]

http://www.thepoultrysite.com/downloads/download/174/

 

[casportpony]

http://www.aviagen.com/assets/Tech_...ow_Tos/06HowTo6MonitorSetterTempVariation.pdf

 

[casportpony]

http://www3.telus.net/npaw/gchf03.html
A List of Some Drugs Commonly Used in Pigeons
PREPARED BY THE ASSOCIATION OF PIGEON VETERINARIANS

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Important Note: For those of you who use the treatment formulary prepared by the Association of Pigeon Veterinarians and published here and in the CU yearbook, just be aware that all dosages are for the US gallon (4 liters) which is 1/5 smaller than our Imperial gallon (4.55 litres). Remember to increase these dosages by 1/5 for our gallon, the New Zealand and Australian gallon. For example, if the correct dosage in the formulary is given as 1 teaspoon per gallon, increase it to approximately 1 tsp per gallon, etc.. As well you can simply use these dosages for 4 litres of water.

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For those of you who use the treatment formulary prepared by the Association of Pigeon Veterinarians and published here and in the CU yearbook, just be aware that all dosages are for the US gallon (4 liters) which is 1/5 smaller than our Imperial gallon (4.55 litres). Remember to increase these dosages by 1/5 for our gallon, the New Zealand and Australian gallon. For example, if the correct dosage in the formulary is given as 1 teaspoon per gallon, increase it to approximately 1 tsp per gallon, etc.. As well you can simply use these dosages for 4 litres of water.
General Considerations Purpose: The purpose of this formulary is to provide a concise, accurate description and proper dosage of the common drugs used in pigeons. Experience has shown that various sources provided vastly different dosage levels. Some of which were so high that they were toxic, other to low that they weren't effective. The dosages and other information in this publication were gathered from multiple knowledgeable sources and are the proper dosages and information to the best of our knowledge. It must be noted, however, that some of this information is based on experience of individuals, not carefully controlled scientific studies. This is especially true for the drugs listed that are not specifically made for or approved for use in pigeons.
Dosage Levels: You will find many of the drugs listed to be given in mg/bird, mg/pound, or mg/gallon, instead of teaspoons or tablespoons per gallon. The reason is that many of the drugs come in various concentrations. Because of that, a teaspoon of one preparation doesn't equal a teaspoon of another preparation of the same drug. This often results in toxic or ineffective levels being used. This poses no problem for most of the prescription drugs as they are usually listed in milligram equivalents. However, some OTC (over the counter) preparations do not give you the number of milligrams per teaspoon. When this occurs you must figure that out on your own.
The following is an example:

• You buy a drug OTC that comes as a powder in a plastic bag. It tells you that there are 10 grams of the drug in that bag. Empty the bag and measure how many teaspoons of powder you have. You find that you have 20 teaspoons. So you have 10 grams/20 teaspoons or .5 gram/tsp. 0.5 gram = 500 mg (see chart) so your drug has 500 mg/teaspoon. Figure how many teaspoons per gallon you need from that. (i.e. if you need 1000 mg/gallon, you need 2 teaspoons per gallon.
• You buy a drug OTC that comes in a liquid. You are told that it is a 20% solution. That means there are 20 grams of the drug in every 100 mL of solution. There are 20 teaspoons in 100 mL (see chart), so there is one gram of drug in every teaspoon of liquid in the bottle. One gram is equal to 1000 mg so you have 1000 mg of drug per teaspoon. Figure what you need from that.

Dosage Range: Many of the drugs give you a dosage range. This is done for 2 reasons:

• 1. The lower dose may be used in mild infections but the higher dose may be needed in more severe infections.
• 2. Since most drugs are given in the water, the amount of the drug a pigeon gets varies with how much water he drinks. We assumed that in hot weather 30 birds drink a gallon/day and in cold weather 60 birds drink a gallon per day. The low dose is figured on the 30 bird/day consumption level and the high dose on the 60 bird/day consumption level. This is a very important principle to keep in mind with the more toxic drugs such as dimetridazole (Emtryl).

Dosage Intervals: It is important to give the drug for the proper length of time. Failure to do so often results in poor response, relapse of the disease after the drug is stopped, and production of resistant strains of organisms.
Diagnosis: Establishment of a proper diagnosis before treatment begins is extremely important. Shotgun treatment often produces poor results, delays recovery to when the proper drug is finally found, and often produces drug-resistant bacteria and parasites. We can not stress strongly enough, in the case of antibiotics, that a culture and sensitivity be done to make sure the antibiotic used is needed and effective. Just because a drug is noted to be effective against many cases of E. coli doesn't mean it is effective against all cases. More and more drug-resistant bacteria occur every day and can best be treated when proper diagnostics are used first.

Helpful Measurements and Equivalents:
The following table may be helpful in converting various measurements

1 gram 1000 mg (milligrams)
1 cubic centimeter (cc) 1 milliliter (mL)
5 cc 1 teaspoon
15 cc 1 tablespoon
30 cc 6 teaspoons or 2 tablespoons
1000 cc 1 liter
8 oz 1 cup
2 cups 1 pint
2 pints 1 quart
4 quarts 1 gallon

ANTIBIOTICS ANTIMICROBIALS
(Remember: for the Imperial gallon used in Canada, the dosages given here should be increased by one fifth).
Also: the word "bacteriacidal" means that bacteria are killed by the drug; "bacteriostatic" means that bacterial growth is stopped by the drug.
Name: Amoxicillin trihydrate (Commercial names: Amoxil, Amoxi-drops, many others)

• Description: Amoxicillin is a semisynthetic analogue of penicillin with a broad range of bactericidal activity against many Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Amoxicillin can be used with any bacterial infection showing susceptibility to the drug.
• Adverse reactions: None seen with any frequency.
• Dosage: 25 - 50 mg/bird divided daily or 1500 - 3000 mg/gallon of water for 10 - 14 days.
• Comments: Amoxicillin is very effective, well absorbed, safe, and well tolerated in the pigeon.

Name: Cephalexin (Commercial name: Keflex, many others)

• Description: Cephalexin is a member of the cephalosporin group of antibiotics and is effective against a broad range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to cephalexin.
• Adverse reactions: None seen with any frequency.
• Dosage: 25 - 50 mg/bird or 750 - 3000 mg/gallon of water for 10 - 14 days.
• Comments: Well tolerated by pigeons and readily accepted in the water. Reported as very effective against streptococcal infections.

Name: Chloramphenicol (Commercial name: Chloromycetin, many others)

• Description: Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic antibiotic used against a broad range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to chloramphenicol.
• Adverse reactions: None seen with any frequency.
• Dosage: 30 - 50 mg/bird 2 - 3 times/day intramuscularly. Ophthalmic ointment or drops are useful for conjunctivitis used two times daily.
• Comments: This drug is broken down so quickly by crop flora, adequate blood levels are hard to attain through oral treatment.

Name: Doxycycline (Commercial name: Vibramycin)

• Description: Doxycycline is a bacteriostatic antibiotic with a wide range of activity against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Doxycycline con be used in bacterial infections susceptible to the drug.
• Adverse reactions: None reported as common.
• Dosage: 10 - 50 mg/bird once a day.
• Comments: Preparations require individual bird dosing. Very effective against chlamydia. Remove calcium containing grit during use (oyster shell, health grit), as calcium will bind the drug and decrease absorption. Note: Pfizer, the company that produced Vibramycin, no longer produces it.

Name: Enrofloxacin (Commercial name: Baytril)

• Description: Enrofloxacin is a synthetic chemotherapeutic agent from the quinolone class of drugs. It has antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. it is rapidly absorbed and penetrates all body tissues well.
• Usage: Enrofloxacin can be used with any bacterial infection showing susceptibility to the drug.
• Adverse reactions: Enrofloxacin causes increased mortality in the egg when the hen is treated during egg formation. It will cause cartilage abnormalities in growing squabs, especially during the lst week to 10 days of age. This, however, is not always seen.
• Dosage: 5 - 10 mg/bird divided daily for 7 - 14 days. 150 - 600 mg/gallon for 7 - 14 days.
• Comments: Probably the best drug we have for the Gram negative infections of pigeons -- E. coli and paratyphoid infections. It is the only drug shown to prevent recurrence of shedding in most cases of salmonella infection at 6 mg/lb for 10 days. We assume that this means the carrier state has been eliminated in these birds. The liquid water-soluble form is available in Canada. Tablets are not water soluble.

Name: Erythromycin (Commercial name: Gallimycin)

• Description: Erythromycin is in the macrolide family of antibiotics. It is bacteriostatic and is effective against Gram positive bacteria and mycoplasmas.
• Usage: Any bacterial infection shown to susceptible to erythromycin.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 50 mg/bird divided twice a day for 7 - 10 days. 1500 - 3000 mg/gallon for 7 - 10days.
• Comments: Erythromycin is broken down quickly by crop bacteria and thus levels found in the water for flock treatment are probably not as effective as bolus doses to individual birds.

Name: Lincomycin (Commercial name: Lincocin)

• Description: Lincomycin is in the macrolide family of antibiotics and is bacteriostatic against Gram positive bacteria and mycoplasmas.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 50 mg/bird divided twice a day for 7 - 10 days. 1500 - 3000 mg/gallon for 7 - 10 days.
• Comments: Lincomycin is broken down quickly by the crop flora and thus levels found in the water for flock treatment are probably not as effective as bolus doses to individual birds.

Name: Lincomycin/Spectinomycin (Commercial name: LS 50)

• Description: Lincomycin/spectinomycin is a combination macrolide/aminoglycoside antibiotic that is bacteriostatic against a broad range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria and mycoplasmas.
• Usage: Used in a broad range of bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to lincomycin/spectinomycin..
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 50 mg/bird (of lincomycin) daily for 7 - 10 days. 1500 3000 mg/gallon (of lincomycin) for 7 - 10 days.
• Comments: Poor palatibilty for pigeons. The lincomycin is broken down quickly by crop bacteria, and thus levels in the water during flock treatment are not as effective as bolus doses. Spectinomycin is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. This drug is widely overused and of questionable value in pigeon medicine.

Name: Nitrofurazone (Commercial name: Furacin, many others)

• Description: Nitrofurazone is an antimicrobial shown to be effective against a wide range of gram + and gram - bacteria. It is also coccidiostatic.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to nitrofurazone, and coccidiosis.
• Adverse reactions: Nitrofurazone is an intestinal irritant and causes a decrease in vigor when given to pigeons.
• Dosage: 1 teaspoon/gallon of water soluble powder for 5 - 7 days.
• Comments: This drug is highly overused in pigeons and is much less effective than other products. Probably has minimal application in pigeon medicine.

Name: Sodium Sulfachlorpyridazine (Commercial name: Vetisulid)

• Description: Sodium sulfachlorpyridazine is an antibacterial agent that is bacteriostatic against a wide range of gram + and gram bacteria. It is also coccidiostatic.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to sodium sulfachlorpyridazine, and coccidiosis.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 1200 mg/gallon for 7 - 10 days. 2/3 to 3/4 teaspoon of Vetisulid powder/gallon for 7 - 10 days.
• Comments: Vetisulid is very effective in many cases of E. coli infection. It is also a coccidiostat, however, other drugs are more commonly used in coccidiosis.

Name: Spectinomycin (Commercial name: Spectoguard)

• Description: Spectinomycin is a bacteriacidal antibiotic that is effective against a broad range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Any bacterial infection shown to be susceptible to spectinomycin.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 1000 mg/gallon for 7 - 10 days. 25 mg/bird twice a day IM.
• Comments: As an aminoglycoside, spectinomycin is not absorbed from the intestinal tract. It has been used with some success with intestinal infections, but is not effective against systemic infections.

Name: Sulfadiazine/trimethoprim (Commercial name: Ditrim)

• Description: Ditrim is a synthetic antibacterial combination product that is bacteriostatic against a wide range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to sulfadiazine/trimethoprim.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 30 mg/bird once a day for 7 - 14 days.
• Comments: only available in pill and injectable form for individual bird dosing.

Name: Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (Commercial name: Bactrim, many others)

• Description: Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim is a synthetic antibacterial combination product that is bacteriostatic against a broad range of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to the drug.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 30 mg/bird twice daily for 7 days. 1800 - 3600 mg/gallon for 7 days.
• Comments: A good drug in many cases of Gram negative bacterial infections. Some preparations dissolve poorly in water.

Name: Tetracyclines - Chlortetracycline (Commercial name: Aureomycin), oxytetracycline (Commercial name: Terramycin)

• Description: The tetracyclines are bacteriostatic antibiotics that are effective against various Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. Cross resistance is common.
• Usage: Tetracyclines can be used in bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to them. Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 20 - 25 mg/bird three times daily. 600 - 1500 mg/gallon for 7 - 14 days. 4 teaspoons/gallon for regular strength preparations and 2 teaspoons/gallon for concentrates.
• Comments: Binds with calcium so consider pulling grit containing calcium (oyster shell and health grits) during use. Very effective in respiratory infections (ornithosis complex) especially when combined with Tylan. Chlamydia are typically very susceptible to tetracycline drugs.

Name: Tylosin (Commercial names: Tylan, Tylocine)

• Description: Tylosin is a macrolide antibiotic that is bacteriostatic against many Gram positive bacteria and mycoplasmas.
• Usage: Bacterial infections shown to be susceptible to tylosin. Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 50 mg/bird divided daily. 1500 - 3000 mg/gallon for 7 - 14 days.
• Comments: Very effective against mycoplasma and against the ornithosis complex when combined with tetracyclines.

COCCIDIOSTATS
Name: Amprolium (Commercial names: Corid, Amprol)

• Description: Amprolium is a chemical that is very similar to thiamine (vitamin B1) in structure. It is coccidiostatic by substituting for thiamine during the coccidia life cycle.
• Usage: As a coccidiostat.
• Adverse reactions: None that are common.
• Dosage: 1 teaspoon/gallon (20% powder) for 3 - 5 days. 6 - 12 mL/gallon (9% solution) for 3 - 5 days.
• Comments: Amprolium is highly effective, can be mixed with other drugs, and doesn't seem to affect performance. It is considered by many to be the drug of choice for coccidiosis. Vitamins should not be used during treatment, but are recommended by many after treatment.

Name: Sulfamethazine (Commercial name: Sulmet)

• Description: Sulfamethazine is a sulfa drug that is coccidiostatic.
• Usage: As a coccidiostat.
• Adverse reactions: May decrease vigor when used for the full course of treatment.
• Dosage: 1 tablespoon/gallon for 3 - 5 days.
• Comments: A popular coccidiostat but no better than amprolium in most cases. Birds typically become listless during treatment (full 5 days of treatment) and therefore it is not recommended for use during racing.

ANTIPROTOZOALS
Name: Carnidazole (Commercial name: Spartrix)

• Description: Carnidazole is in the 5-nitro-imidazole family of compounds and has been shown to have significant antiprotozoal activity.
• Usage: trichomoniasis (canker).
• Adverse reactions: None reported with proper dosage.
• Dosage: One 10 mg tablet per pigeon on an empty crop,
• Comments: Convenient one day dosage, but recurrence is quicker than with water treatments. Only drug labelled for use in pigeons in the United States.

Name: Dimetridazole (Commercial name: Emtryl - 40% water-soluble powder available in Canada)

• Description: Dimetridazole is in the 5-nitro-imidazole family of compounds and has been shown to have significant antiprotozoal activity.
• Usage: trichomoniasis (canker).
• Adverse reactions: Central nervous signs with overdosage. Fatalities can occur.
• Dosage: 1 teaspoon per gallon for 5-7 days for the Canadian gallon (4.55 litres), 3/4 teaspoon per US gallon (4 liters) for 5-7 days (See: "Canker" in text for info on use of Emtryl in very hot weather).
• Comments: Very good for flock treatment, legal in Canada but illegal in the USA. Overdosage and underdosage are common problems among fanciers. Under dosing, for example, has already resulted in the development of highly resistant strains of the canker organism in Europe.

Name: Metronidazole (Commercial name: Flagyl)

• Description: Metronidazole is in the 5-nitro-imidazole family of compounds and has been shown to have significant antiprotozoal activity.
• Usage: trichomoniasis. Poorly soluble in water, so not good in flock treatment.
• Adverse reactions: Over dosage can result in central nervous system signs and death.
• Dosage: 50 - 100 mg/bird daily for 4 - 6 days.
• Note: poor solubility in water.

Name: Ronidazol (Commercial name: Ridzol)

• Description: Ronidazol is in the 5-nitro-imidazole family of compounds and has been shown to have significant antiprotozoal activity.
• Usage: trichomoniasis.
• Adverse reactions: None at the proper dosage.
• Dosage: 1/2 - 3/4 teaspoon per gallon for 3 - 5 days. 400 mg/gallon for 3 - 5 days.
• Comments: Reported far superior to any drug in the States. Less toxic and more effective. Approved for use only in Europe.

ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS
Name: Primaquine (Commercial name: Aralen)

• Description: Primaquine is an 8-aminoquinoline compound having antimalarial activity.
• Usage: Haemoproteus.
• Adverse reactions: None with the given dosage.
• Dosage: 1 - 2 tablets/gallon for 10 - 21 days before the race season. Then 1 - 2 days weekly.
• Comments: Primaquine is available as Aralen which also contains chloroquine. When used at the stated dosage, the drug will not cure but only suppress haemoproteus infection in the pigeon, thus alleviating signs.

Name: Quinacrine HCl (Commercial name: Atabrine)

• Description: Quinacrine is a bright yellow compound with antimalarial activity.
• Usage: Haemoproteus.
• Adverse reactions: None with proper dosage.
• Dosage: 1 1/2 (meaning one and a half) to 3 tablets/gallon (4 litres) for 10 - 21 days before the race season. Then 1 - 2 days weekly during the race season.
• Comments: Quinacrine will not cure haemoproteus, only suppress its numbers in the pigeon, thus alleviating symptoms. It is bitter and not well accepted by the birds.

ANTHELMINTICS
Name: Fenbendazole (Commercial name: Panacur)

• Description: Fenbendazole is a member of the benzamidizole class of anthelmintics and is effective against a large variety of intestinal nematodes.
• Usage: Ascarids (roundworms), Capillaria (threadworms), Strongyles, and Tetrameres (stomach worms). Not effective against cestodes (tapeworms).
• Adverse reactions: Can cause feather abnormalities at the higher dosage, especially in hot weather when they are drinking a lot. It should not be used during the molt or in birds feeding youngsters.
• Dosage: 5 mg/bird daily for 3 days.
• Comments: Very effective, but not commonly used.

Name: Ivermectin (Commercial names: Ivomec, Eqvalen)

• Description: Ivermectin is derived from the avermectins, a family of highly active, broad spectrum, antiparasitic agents.
• Usage: Broad spectrum wormer. Effective against Ascarids (roundworms), Capillaria (hairworms), and stomach wall worms. Some resistance developing.
• Adverse reactions: None.
• Dosage: 500 -1000 ug per bird. Can be dosed in the drinking water, but the efficacy of this method is debatable. The surest way is to treat the pigeons individually. 1 to 2 drops by mouth of Ivomec is the correct dose. The higher dosage is needed to treat roundworms and, for some reason, even this is occasionally ineffective.
• Comments: This is a very effective and safe drug. Ivomec, the cattle preparation cannot be mixed well with water, thus birds must be individually dosed. Eqvalen, the horse product is water soluble and may be mixed in the water. Wormer of choice for all worms except tapeworms.

Name: Levamisole (Commercial names: Tramisol, Ripercol)

• Description: Levamisole is used to treat against susceptible nematodes (worms).
• Usage: Ascarids, Capillaria (poor)
• Adverse reactions: Some birds will vomit the drug.
• Dosage: 1500 mg/gallon for 3 days.
• Comments: Effectiveness is highly variable, especially with Capillaria. This common wormer is probably highly overused and should be replaced with more effective drugs such as ivermectin and mebendazole.

Name: Mebendazole (Commercial name: Telmintic)

• Description: Mebendazole is a member of the benzamidizole class of anthelmintics and is effective against a large variety of intestinal nematodes.
• Usage: Ascarids, Capillaria, Strongyles, and Tetrameres (stomach worms). Not effective against cestodes (tapeworms).
• Adverse reactions: Can cause feather abnormalities at higher doses and should not be used during the moult or in birds feeding youngsters.
• Dosage: 2 1/2 (meaning two and a half) mg per bird for 3 to 5 days. 1/4 to 1/2 (meaning one quarter to one half) teaspoon per gallon of Telmintic dog wormer for 3 to 5 days.
• Comments: Very effective for a lot of parasites. With the advent of water soluble ivermectin (Eqvalen), this drug will probably be used less and less.

Name: Piperazine (many commercial preparations)

• Description: Piperazine is an anthelmintic used for ascarids.
• Usage: Roundworms.
• Adverse reactions: None.
• Dosage: 300 mg/gallon for 2 days. 16 mg/bird for 2 days.
• Comments: Very common narrow spectrum anthelmintic. It is not commonly used. Drug only sedates the worm and the bird must pass the worm before the drug is gone or it will remain in the pigeon.

Name: Praziquantal (Commercial name: Droncit)

• Description: Praziquantal is a drug shown to have excellent antiparasitic activity against cestodes.
• Usage: Cestodes (tapeworms)
• Adverse reactions: None.
• Dosage: 5 to 12 1/2 (meaning 'five to twelve and a half) mg per bird orally or by subcutaneous injection once.
• Comments: Comments: Most people give 1/4 (meaning 'one quarter') of a cat-size Droncit tablet per bird. Drug of choice for tapeworms. Very safe and effective.

MISCELLANEOUS
Name: Nystatin (many commercial preparations)

• Description: Nystatin is a polyene antifungal antibiotic.
• Usage: crop candida (yeast) overgrowth.
• Adverse reactions: None reported.
• Dosage: 100,000 units per bird (50,000 for youngsters) daily until 48 hours after signs are gone.
• Comments: Very good product for candida (thrush) overgrowth.

Name: Permethrin dust (Commercial name: Insectrin GP)

• Description: Permethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid with good effectiveness against external parasites.
• Usage: Lice, mites, and pigeon flies.
• Adverse reactions: None.
• Dosage: Thoroughly dust into the feathers.
• Comments: Gives up to a two week residual effect and very effective. By far the best product for pigeon flies. Good to use before basketing for races in areas where pigeon flies are present.

Methods for the Microscopic Examination of Pigeon Droppings
Method #1

• 1. Place 1 - 2 teaspoons of fresh droppings in a container and add 1 ounce of water.
• 2. Mix thoroughly to make a uniform suspension.
• 3. Half fill a test tube, a small vial, or a plastic pill bottle with this suspension. Fill the other half with sugar solution. Mix well.
• 4. Place 1-2 drops of mixture on a glass slide and cover with a cover slip. Let sit for a few minutes to allow worm eggs and coccidia to float to the top. Examine microscopically for worm eggs and coccidia.
• Sugar Solution -- add 1 ½ oz of table sugar to just over 1 oz of water. [You can make up more volume at a time by increasing the proportions of sugar and water -- the original directions call for 1 lb of table sugar and 12 - 13 oz (355 mL) of distilled water]. Shake to dissolve.

Method #2

• 1. Add Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate) to ½ pint of boiling water until the Epsom salts no longer dissolve. Cool and store.
• 2. Mix a small volume of droppings with twice as much Epsom salt solution. Mix well and allow to stand for a few minutes.
• 3. 3. Place 1-2 drops of mixture on a glass slide, add a cover slip and examine microscopically for worm eggs and coccidia.

Method #3

• Note: A commercial method called a Fecalyzer kit may be available through your veterinarian. The principle is similar to that of the previous two methods.

 

[casportpony]

http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartal...k_angol_05_termeleselettan/ch13.html#id580394

PHYSIOLOGICAL and REPRODUCTIONAL ASPECTS OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Ferenc Husvéth (2011)
Debreceni Egyetem, Nyugat-Magyarországi Egyetem, Pannon Egyetem

Beágyazás​

Chapter 13. REPRODUCTION IN BIRDS (PHYSIOLOGY OF EGG PRODUCTION)
Table of Contents
Female reproductive system
Egg formation and oviposition
Reproduction and Photoperiods
Self evaluation questions
It is apparent even to the casual observer that there are dramatic reproductive differences between mammals and birds. Chickens (Gallus domesticus) are familiar as domesticated birds in the poultry industry. These birds are believed to be domesticated from Red Jungle fowl found in south-eastern Asia. Humans take advantage of the prodigious egg production of these animals to provide breakfast staple around the world and meat for our tables. Before World War II, most egg production came from flocks of only a few hundred hens. Beginning in the 1960s, changing technology and creation specialized equipments shifted production from these small farm flocks to larger, vertically integrated (direct association between growers and producers) larger enterprises including several thousands of birds.
Avian reproduction is best understood in domestic chicken and turkeys. In fact, the modern poultry industry depends on a well-developed understanding of the reproductive cycle and how best to manipulate and control it for maximum egg production. Birds lay eggs in groups or clutches of one or more eggs. This is followed by a rest period and then another cycle. Clutch size, as well as the numbers of clutches laid in a breeding season, varies with species, but the principle is the same. Domestic hens usually lay five or more eggs in a clutch, with a day’s break between clutches.
Hence ovulate in the morning and almost never after 3.00 p.m. under a normal photoperiod. The final stages to prepare the terminal egg for laying takes from 25 to 26h. This period includes approximately 3.5 h to add the layers of albumen (egg white) around the yolk, 1,5 h for shell membranes, and 20 h needed for shell formation. Ovulation of the next egg in sequence (part of the clutch) begins within an hour of laying the previous egg. This means that the hen starts to slowly get behind as each day presses. After several day she gets so far behind that she would have to ovulate after 3:00 p.m. Since this does not happen, the next ovulation is delayed and the clutch cycle is broken. After a couple of days the sequence begins again with a new clutch of eggs.
Sometimes a hen will stop laying additional eggs and begin to focus on the incubation of eggs. This is called “broodiness” or “going broody, A broody chicken will doggedly sit on her nest and protest or peck if distributed. While brooding, the hen maintains constant temperature and humidity, and also turns the eggs regularly. At the end of the21-day incubation period, if the eggs are fertilized they will hatch and the broody hen will take care of her chicks. Since individual eggs do not all hatched at the same time (the hen lays only one egg approximately every 25 h), the hen will usually stay on the nest for about 2 days after the first egg hatches. During this time, newly hatched chicks live off the egg yolk they absorb just before hatching. The hen can sense the chicks peeping inside the eggs and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. If the eggs are not fertilized and do not hatch, the hen will eventually lose interest and leave the nest.
Female reproductive system
Among female birds, both right and left ovaries are present embryologically, but chickens, turkey, and domestic geese the right organs regress early in development and only the left side develops (both sides persist and develop in ducks). The ovaries are located cranioventrally to the corresponding kidney, and the size varies with the reproductive status of the bird. Prior to the onset of the first laying period, the small ovary is smooth; as puberty is approached, it begins to develop a granular, then cobblestone appearance as follicles enlarge in preparation for ovulation. Just prior to “coming into lay”, the ovary will resemble a bunches of grapes.
The mature ovum is more-or-less equivalent to the yolk of the egg; it will be released at ovulation and received into the expanded terminus of the oviduct, the infundibulum (Fig. 13. 1.).
Figure 13.1. Figure 13.1.: Structures of female chicken reproductive tract (Akers and Denbow, 2008). The ovary with multiple oocytes in various stages of development is apparent. After ovulation, the egg progresses through segments of the oviduct, infundibulum, magnum, and isthmus. In this illustration, a mature egg after albumin deposition (soft egg), but before shell formation, is shown. The mature egg is subsequently laid after passage into the cloaca

 

[casportpony]

. Brain injury is the cause I feel fairly certain about.

Water on the brain was seen in a necropsy of an affected bird in Florida. Prednisone (read on about different opinions on prednisone) was suggested as symptomatic relief and vitamin E and vitamins B complex are both good for neurological disorders. Selenium helps animals absorb vitamin E.

Here's what I do for affected birds. If started before symptoms get severe, the bird will usually totally recover.

The Most Important Treatment

It is important to be sure your bird gets enough to eat and drink while she has this problem. Birds with severe cases of crookneck can't eat and drink enough to survive. You will need to gently place their head in the feed dish and carefully dip just the tip of the beak in water. Be careful not to dip too far into the water and to not stress the bird while trying to help.

In severe cases, you will need to use a hand feeding syringe and hand rearing formula for cage birds. My boy Spot had to be hand fed for 2 months but he survived to father lots of healthy chicks.

If you and your bird are lucky, hand feeding and the vitamins will be all that is needed.

Giving Prednisone Must Not Be Abruptly Stopped

Before I present my treatment I need to mention that a couple vets have expressed concern about using prednisone. They suggested instead giving Celebrex or Metacam. They are also anti-inflammatory. I can understand their concern but I gradually reduce the dose and do not just one day stop giving prednisone. I have seen no adverse effects and prednisone is inexpensive while Celebrex and Metacam are expensive.

Many vets think prednisone OK and in fact is was prescribed for a bird of mine.

Veterinary Information on Prednisone

My Treatment for Crookneck

If started before symptoms get severe, the bird will totally recover. The following is for an adult about 2 pound bird. Scale back for smaller birds. Do not over do the selenium; it is toxic in large amounts. Animals are more tolerant of vitamin E especially and of vitamin B.

• For the first week I give
  • Once a day
    • About 1/4 piece of human vitamin B complex pill or a squirt of human B liquid vitamins
    • :25 micrograms selenium
  • Twice a day
    • 2.5 mg of prednisone
    • 400 IU of vitamin E
• For the second week I give
  • Once a day
    • 2.5 mg of prednisone
    • 400 IU of vitamin E
    • About 1/4 piece of human vitamin B complex pill or a squirt of human B liquid vitamins
  • Every other day
    • :25 micrograms selenium
• For the third and following weeks I give
  • Once a day
    • 2.5 mg of prednisone - less and less each day - none after third week
    • 400 IU of vitamin E
    • A piece of human vitamin B complex pill or a squirt of human liquid vitamins
  • Once a week
    • :25 micrograms selenium

Do not abruptly stop prednisone, the swelling rebounds. Decrease the dose gradually. Recovery can be slow; continue the vitamin E for several weeks at least.

You can get prednisone from a vet; just describe the problem of swelling in the brain probably due to injury. Yes Silkies' brains do stick out through a hole on the top of the skull. Print the pictures at Silkies Have a Hole in Their Head and show them to your vet.

Your vet might suggest a different anti inflammatory like Celebrex or Metacam.

You can get the vitamin E, selenium, and vitamin B complex or liquid vitamins at any pharmacy.

A Vet's Review of this Therapy

Diana Hedrick asked Janny Hermans, a poultry specialist in the Netherlands, to review this Therapy. Janny Hermans' reply is below. Janny Hermans warns about over doing the prednisone and agrees the vitamins E and B can also help. She does however address the possibility of poisoning causing the neurological problems. She suggests an antibiotic in case bacteria are the source of the poison.

Dear Diana,

I'll try to write English and I'm sure we'll understand each other. If you really found her on her back, that means she totally lost her balance. This is a severe neurological symptom and therefore I agree for a great deal with the article of Alan. I don't think your cat attacked her. Then you should see wounds on her head, if the symptoms are so bad.

It's more likely that she suffers from an intoxication of any kind. It's difficult how to react, because there are no real detoxification methods. Antibiotics are a good thing and I think your choice of amoxicillin was a right one. Amoxicillin passes the blood brain barrier and is our first choice antibiotic in Streptococcus or Staphylococcus infections in the brain. Amoxicillin also is the best antibiotic in an infection with Clostridium perfringens (a brother of the bacteria that causes botulism). These Clostridia bacteria all cause cramps or paralysis of muscles. The real problem is that these bacteria also produce toxins against which no therapy is possible.

So my therapy would be the same: Amoxicillin for a day or 7 and perhaps a little bit prednisone (I've never heard of the hole in Silkies brains, but prednisone causes no harm if you give it shortly). A little bit of vitamin E and B can help also.

I hope I helped you a bit!!

Janny Hermans Poultry veterinarian

-Kathy

 

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Good antibiotic info:
http://www.marvistavet.com/pharmacy-center.pml#a

-Kathy

 

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http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Rep...es-Nematode-Parasites-Treatment-Fenbendazole/

Reptiles Nematode Parasites Treatment: Fenbendazole

BY ROGER J. KLINGENBERG

Nematodes are among the most common parasites diagnosed in reptiles, with more than five hundred reptile forms identified. Larval forms migrate through the body. Adult nematodes are typically thought of as worms. Because of their ubiquitous nature, several drugs have been adapted to treat them.
Fenbendazole is a member of the benzimidazole group of anthelmintics, which also includes thiabendazole (TBZ), mebendazole (Telmin), and albendazole (Valbazen). This group of anthelmintics has been widely used in veterinary medicine because of their effect not only on mature worms but also on larval and even encysted stages. In addition to killing mature worms, the benzimidazoles exert an ovicidal effect, immediately decreasing egg production by effectively sterilizing the worm.
Although literally hundreds of benzimidazole derivatives have been formulated, fenbendazole is easily the drug of choice among the variations. While all medications in this group are considered to be very safe, fenbendazole is the safest of all of them. It was difficult to establish an LD50 (lethal dose at which 50 percent of test population will perish) in rodents. Even a dose greater than ten thousand times a normal dose would not consistently kill mice or rats. In addition to its excellent safety record, fenbendazole does not cause birth defects, unlike most of the other drugs of this group. The only contraindications for the use of fenbendazole are its uses in horses to be used for food and in lactating cattle. There are no proven reptile contraindications or known drug interactions.

Fenbendazole functions by inhibiting the uptake of glucose (sugar) in the nematode parasite. This block of glucose uptake is slow, so fenbendazole works better when given over a course of several days than in single or multiple doses that are given at spaced time intervals. Fenbendazole is the drug of choice for nematode parasites and is given orally at 25–50 mg/kg once daily for three to five days and then repeated in ten days, if warranted. If used for giardia infections, it should be given at 50 mg/kg daily for five days.
Upon oral administration, fenbendazole is minimally metabolized, and the majority of the drug is excreted unchanged. This helps explain why the cloacal administration of fenbendazole (Innis 1995) is effective only with parasites found in the cloaca and will do nothing for parasites in the remainder of the GI tract. In his report, Innis describes how he initially gave a tortoise fenbendazole at 100 mg/kg orally once and then again two weeks later, and the pinworms were not eliminated. He reported better results with dosing the fenbendazole with a syringe into the cloaca. We now know that had Innis administered the fenbendazole orally over a course of three to five days, it would have produced even better results as a result of the constant blockage of glucose uptake in the worms. In any case, it is interesting to have another route of administration because it isn’t always easy to get oral fenbendazole down a tortoise for three to five days.
The technique that Innis employed was to place the tortoise in dorsal recumbency (upside down) and, with the drug inside a tuberculin (1 mL) syringe with a lubricated tip, introduce the syringe into the cloaca. Although it is beneficial to place the medication as far into the rectum as possible, care should be taken to advance no more than half of the syringe and to stop immediately if resistance is noted. Leakage is prevented by manual pressure on each side of the cloaca. Innis further reported an almost immediate expulsion of pinworms due to the enema effect. The pinworms continued to be passed for another two to three days. He also suggested using a red rubber urethral catheter in larger specimens to prevent depositing the drug into the bladder. Again, although cloacal administration of fenbendazole will produce results, it is not as effective as the oral administration because the drug’s action is limited to the colon. Regardless of the route chosen for administration, the drug is best given over consecutive days, rather than in individual, spaced doses.
Some reptile veterinarians believe that albendazole is more effective in single doses than fenbendazole is. Even if single dose effectiveness is conceded, fenbendazole is preferable for several reasons. Although albendazole is considered to be safe, it is better absorbed than the other benzimidazoles are, which increases side effects with the liver and hematologic organ systems. Both drugs are more effective when administered daily for several days rather than in one dose, so single-dose effectiveness is a moot point. Albendazole is also teratogenic (causing birth defects) and embryotoxic (causing damage or death to the embryo), which would pose an undue risk for potentially gravid animals. Finally, albendazole interacts with praziquantel (Droncit) and dexamethasone, which would limit concurrent treatment of cestodes. Fenbendazole is simply safer than albendazole.
This author has been jokingly accused of owning stock in Panacur as a result of such enthusiastic promoting of fenbendazole. So to provide a balanced argument, let’s discuss some downsides of fenbendazole. As mentioned previously, the drug was implicated in the deaths of four Fea’s vipers. Stein and Wynne (G. Stein and J. Wynne 1993, pers. comm.) noted that tortoises treated with fenbendazole became anorexic but regained their appetites after a few days. The author has noted that bearded dragons can go off food dramatically when put through consecutive day dosing, with the longest period of anorexia being two weeks. As bearded dragons often have both pinworms and coccidia, it is not unusual for them to be treated with both sulfadimethoxine (Albon) and fenbendazole at the same time, leading to questions about which drug could be causing the appetite to be suppressed. In any case, both drugs have caused appetite suppression when used separately, so perhaps a noncritical bearded dragon should be treated in stages to minimize appetite disruption. For bearded dragons that won’t eat, force-feeding appears to kick-start most into eating again. Employ force-feeding early and continue force-feeding until the dragons feed on their own.
In some rare cases, parasites appear to be resistant to fenbendazole. In this situation, the author suggests using ivermectin, which may require more doses over time. A small study (Klingenberg 1993) demonstrated this in ball pythons. Fenbendazole eliminated nematodes in fewer doses than ivermectin did (see appendix III). Corwin (M. Corwin 1994, pers. comm.) reported that this was also true when treating nematode parasites of monitor lizards.
Excerpt from the book Understanding Reptile Parasites by Roger Klingenberg with permission from its publisher, Advanced Vivarium Systems, an imprint of BowTie Press. Purchase Understanding Reptile Parasites here.

 

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https://books.google.com/books?id=x...E#v=onepage&q=avian medicine fipronil&f=false


https://books.google.com/books?id=x...E#v=onepage&q=avian medicine fipronil&f=false

 

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