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Summary
Following preliminary experiments to determine suitable methods for studying mycoplasma survival, suspensions of
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (four strains),
Mycoplasma synoviae (two strains) or
Mycoplasma iowae (two strains) were seeded onto replicate samples of cotton, rubber, straw, shavings, timber, food, feathers and human hair. The organisms were also seeded onto human skin, ear and nasal mucosa. All samples were cultured for viability after 4, 8, 12 and 24 h, and then daily up to 6 days. The identity of recovered mycoplasmas was confirmed by indirect immunofluorescence. All three
Mycoplasma species survived for the longest time on feathers with
M. gallisepticum surviving between 2 and 4 days and
M. synoviae 2 to 3 days. The type strain of
M. iowae remained viable for 5 days on feathers, while the field strain was still viable at the end of the 6‐day experiment. This strain also survived for at least 6 days on human hair and several other materials.
M. gallisepticum survived on human hair up to 3 days and one recent field isolate also survived in the nose for 24 h. Survival times of the organisms were generally less on other materials although
M. gallisepticum could be isolated from straw, cotton and rubber samples after 2 days.
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Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a pathogenic species within the genus Mycoplasma of the family Mycoplasmataceae.
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) infection, a common disease of poultry, is commonly designated as chronic respiratory disease (CRD) of chickens. Despite success in eliminating the disease in grand parent (GP) stock and turkeys, it persists in broiler breeders and broilers in many areas (1). Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a respiratory disease, affecting the entire respiratory tract, particularly the air sacs, where it is localized. It is mainly characterized by respiratory rales, coughing and nasal discharge. Clinical manifestations are usually slow to develop and the disease has a long course. All the air sacs may be involved, become cloudy in appearance, and filled with mucus. Similar exudates may encircle the heart and heart sac (2).
Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection is caused by an organism classified as a mycoplasma. This organism is similar to bacteria, but lacks a cell wall. This characteristic makes MG extremely fragile.
This disease is found everywhere and is extremely important to both the broiler grower and the table-egg producer. Mycoplasma gallisepticum is especially serious in broiler chickens in which it often acts synergistically with other agents, such as respiratory viruses or pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli to provoke chronic respiratory disease. (3). While not a catastrophic disease it is one of significant economic importance. Mycoplasma gallisepticum is often a co-infection agent with other agents that makes the clinical signs of the other disease much worse. Infection of the air sacs in broilers is a cause for condemning the dressed birds as unsuitable for human consumption (2).
The economic impact of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in broilers includes severely depressed growth rate and feed conversion efficiency. A result of reduced feed consumption is the loss of weight which will be worse in broilers (4).
Mycoplasma gallisepticum problems are of high economic significance since respiratory tract lesions can cause high morbidity, high mortality and significant condemnation at slaughter and downgrading of carcass. MG may remain dormant and cause no disease until the chicken undergoes some stress, so the MG itself is not a killer, in fact, even morbidity is not great. However, an outbreak may be followed quickly by many secondary infections, and it is these that do the damage (5).
Signs:
Infected chickens may develop respiratory symptoms, including rales, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, frothiness around the eyes, or difficulty breathing. The severity of the symptoms varies; more severe infections are seen when the bird is infected concurrently with Newcastle disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, Escherichia coli or other pathogens (5).
Lesions:
In uncomplicated cases in chickens, the lesions typically include mild sinusitis, tracheitis, airsacculitis and mucus in the trachea. If the chicken is infected concurrently with Escherichia coli, thickening and turbidity of the air sacs, exudative accumulations, fibrinopurulent pericarditis, and perihepatitis may be seen particularly in broilers (4).
Mortality:
In chickens with uncomplicated infections, the morbidity rate is high while the mortality rate is low. If the birds are concurrently infected with other viruses or bacteria, the disease is more severe. Infections can also result in decreased productivity in the flock.
Financial losses are due to poor feed conversion, retarded growth, drug costs, mortality, increased culling and poor production (4).
Etiology:
Classification: MG is a pathogenic specie within the genus Mycoplasma of the family Mycoplasmataceae.
Growth requirements: MG requires a rather complex medium enriched with 10-15% heat-inactivated swine, avian or horse serum; in this experiment we are using swine serum. Several types of liquid or agar media will support growth of mycoplasmas of avian origin. Growth generally is optimal in medium at approximately pH 7,8 incubated at 37-38° C. Inclusion of phenol red & dextrose makes it possible to detect growth in tubes employed in mass culturing.
Colony Morphology: MG can be grown on serum-enriched agar medium inoculated with broth or agar culture material. It is often very difficult to obtain colony growth directly from original exudates. Inoculated agar plates must be incubated at 37° C in a very moist atmosphere for 3-5 days (5).
Diagnosis:
The following cumulative observations are needed for a final diagnosis of MG infection, namely, lesions, serology, isolation and identification of organism and demonstration of specific DNA (commercial PCR kit available). Culture requires inoculation in mycoplasma-free embryos or, more commonly in Mycoplasma Broth followed by plating out on Mycoplasma Agar. Suspected colonies may be identified by immuno-flourescence.
Frey et al. (1968) developed a medium that incorporated all essential ingredients including 10-15% heat inactivated swine avian or horse serum, yeast autolysate and dextrose, necessary for M. gallisepticum growth. Evidence of colony growth is best studied with the aid of a dissecting microscope with an indirect lighting and characteristic colonies appear as tiny, smooth, circular translucent masses with a dense raised central area (Ley and Yoder, 1997).
Transmission:
The main problem is that parent birds infected with Mycoplasma gallisepticum can transmit the organism through the egg to their offspring. In addition, infection can occur by contact or by airborne dust or droplets.
Direct contact of susceptible birds with infected carrier chickens or turkeys causes outbreaks of the disease. Spread by contact with contaminated equipment is commonly assumed but not been well documented.
The incubation period varies from 6 to 21 days.
Prevention and treatment:
Strict isolation should be maintained to avoid introduction of the disease intro a clean house. The only way to eliminate Mycoplasma gallisepticum from the house is to depopulate, clean and disinfect the premises and allow the house to remain empty for 3-4 weeks. Good management and sanitation are required to maintain a Mycoplasma gallisepticum-free flock. Various antibiotics and chemicals have been injected or administered in feed or water for treatment of CRD.
Results of treatments have been variable, probably reflecting the different complicating infections present under different conditions. Antibiotics (streptomycin, oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, erythromycin, spiramycin and tylosin) may suppress signs of the disease and has been found to be of economic value, but they may re-occur when treatment is discontinued and carrier status is not eliminated. This is why attempts have been made to prevent the disease by immunization.
Control by medication or vaccination and eradication of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infections has been by far the most effective method of combating the disease. Use of killed (bacterin) vaccines produces a reduction of airsacculitis in broilers, higher egg production, a greater percentage of egg graded large and over, a smaller percentage of undergrades, a better feed conversion in layers and protection against transmission of Mycoplasma gallisepticum through the eggs in breeding stock.
Fertile eggs from infected birds can be treated with antibiotics such as tylosin to eliminate Mycoplasma gallisepticum organisms. Methods used are the injection of fertile eggs or egg dipping.
Blood serum testing of breeder chickens for Mycoplasma gallisepticum antibodies has become a routine to test flocks for a Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection.
- Eradication of infection is the most satisfactory means of control.
- Antimicrobials may be introduced into hatching eggs.
- Antibiotic treatment is also of value in face of clinical disease.
- Live and killed (bacterin) vaccines are safe and capable of preventing Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection.
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Causes of Mycoplasma infectious synovitis
Chickens and turkeys of all ages are susceptible to this acute to chronic disease. The aetiology agent involved is M. synoviae.
Mode of transmission
Spread through
egg and laterally by aerosol. Also transmitted by people, vehicles etc.
Note: It is everywhere.
Mycoplasmosis
The
Mycoplasma bacteria are some of the smallest living organisms capable of free existence. Two important mycoplasmas affecting chickens are
Mycoplasma synoviae, which causes air-sac disease in young birds and infectious synovitis in birds of all ages, and
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which also causes air-sac disease in young birds and chronic respiratory disease in growing and mature birds.
Diseases caused by
Mycoplasma infections can be difficult to diagnose without laboratory work since they often occur alongside other bacterial and viral diseases.
They are spread from infected breeding birds through hatching eggs as well as by direct contact with infected or carrier birds. However, the
Mycoplasma bacteria are not able to survive long away from the bird's body. In commercial breeding flocks, management and biosecurity measures aim at eradication of the disease causing organisms, but this is difficult or impossible in freely ranging scavenging chickens.
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Bacterial Diseases
MYCOPLASMA
99. 100. 101. MG is characterized by respiratory symptoms and a prolonged course of the disease. Particularly susceptible are hens and turkeys at all ages. The aetiological agent is M. gallisepticum. In many cases however, the pathogenicity of the microorganism is enhanced because of its association with any or some of the following agents: E. coli, P. multocida, H. paragallinarum and IB or ND viruses. The most characteristic signs in adult flocks are tracheal rales, nasal discharge, coughing, decreased egg production. Most outbreaks are in broiler chickens older than 4 weeks. The course of the disease is more severe during the winter and in cases of associated infections. Often, conjunctivrtes, facial skin oedema and profuse tear secretion could be observed.
102. In turkeys, unilateral or bilateral swelling of periorbital sinuses, nasal discharge and conjunctivitis are observed. The inflammatory exudate is commonly fibrinous and is detected as diffuse accumulation after removal of overlying skin.
103. 104.most common gross finding is aerosacculftes, the air sacs being filled with fibrinous caseous exudate. The majority of routine chemical disinfectants are effective against M.gallisepticum that rarely survives longer than a few days away from the host. The birds could carry the microorganism and be asymptomatic until the disease is triggered by stress factors such as change of the premise, the diet or weather, vaccinations against or infections with IB or ND, increased levels of dust or ammonia.
105.In older cases, the content of air sacs is dense and compact. A vertical transmission is done through the eggs of some unapparent carriers. The infected progeny transmits the agent horizontally via airborne route, by coughing or contaminated forage, water and environment.
106.Serofibrinous pneumonias, usually bilateral, are a frequent finding.
107Often, the inflammation involves the adjacent serous coats and thus, fibrinous polyserosites occur.
108Sinusites are relatively rarely observed in hens. The positive agglutination tests of sera in several birds from the flock confirm the diagnosis. MG should be distinguished from other respiratory diseases in poultry. Pulmonary and air sacs lesions could be mistaken with similar findings in E. coli septicaemia or aspergillus's. In turkeys, P. multocida pneumonia should also be considered.
109.110.Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) infections could progress as either acute or a chronic systemic disease with symptoms of arthritis, synovitis and bursitis especially in hens and turkeys. The earliest signs are lameness, lying down and retarded growth. Often, oedemas of tibiotarsal joints and the drumstick are observed. The morbidity and death rates are moderate, under 10%. Young chickens at the age of 4-12 weeks and turkey poults at the age of 10-12 weeks are susceptible. Synovites are encountered all year round, but are prevalent during cold humid seasons or when the litter is wet.
111.112.Affected birds get progressively exhausted. When the joints and tendon sheaths are open, a serofibrinous exudate is most commonly observed. The aetiological agent is M. synoviae. The microorganism shows a certain tropism to synovial structures as joints and tendon sheaths. An important route of dissemination of the agent is the transovarial trans¬mission. The distribution by a horizontal route via the respira¬tory tract is also possible. The commonly used means of diagnostics is ELISA. MS infections should be differentiated from staphylococcal infections, reoviral arthritis and RGT (see RGT).
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